Brief Introductions To Religious Texts will serve to educate the general public on the great religious texts, what they are and basic scholarship related to them. The Philosophy of this series is to educate with the hope of clearing up misconceptions and fighting ignorance, which can lead to hate. Also to make this information available and easily Understandable by the general public. Interaction with the blog, asking questions, and sharing are greatly encouraged. Words appearing in bold are important terms defined at the end of the post.
The Christian version of the Hebrew Bible, commonly known by Christians as the Old Testament, makes up the first half of their Bible, but it is shrouded in almost as much confusion as the Hebrew Bible is. This is due not to names though, but the fact that there are so many versions. Many Protestants are surprised to find out that some Old Testaments contain more books than others. Why, exactly are their so many different versions? There are so many versions because the various Christian traditions use different ancient versions or translations. What follows is an examination of a few of the most important ancient translations of the Jewish scriptures, a few of the major versions of the Old Testament, and the major differences between the TaNaK and The Old Testament. At the end I have included some online resources for further study.
The Septuagint
While it was not the first ancient translation of the Hebrew Biblei, it was by far the most important. It was this translation which was utilized to render the Bible into many other languages. Originally the term ‘Septuagint’ only meant the translation of the Torah or Pentateuchii. This was the first translation to be called a ‘bible’ iii. The Septuagint was enlarged gradually by adding all of the separate texts of the Hebrew Bible. Some of the books that were added were not included in the Hebrew Bibleiv v. The word Septuagint is Greek for “seventy” and is often abbreviated as LXX, alluding to the seventy-two translators who are supposed to have made this translation during the period of Ptolemy II Philadelphusvi. The Septuagint was written, not in classical Greek, such as one finds Homer or Plato written in, but Kione Greek, or common Greek. With the conquests of Alexander the Great, from Greece to Western India, Kione Greek became the universal language due to this diffusion of Hellenistic culture. Due to this, anyone in the Hellenistic world could read this translation of the Hebrew Scriptures. It’s overall importance cannot be over estimated. “Whether one considers its general fidelity to the original, its influence over the Jews for whom it was prepared, its relationship to the Greek New Testament, or its place in the Christian church, the Septuagint stands preeminent in the light it casts on the study of the Scriptures.”vii Before the recovery of the Dead Sea Scrollsviii, the Septuagint was the essential and just about the sole source for learning the history of the Hebrew Bible’s text, and for learning the theological and exegetical beliefs of the Judaism found in both Alexandria and Palestine.ix
The Old Latin Translation
The Old Latin translation is somewhat of a misleading title, as there was not one set translation, as there was with the Septuagint, but many divergent translations. These translations where present before Jerome compiled his Latin translation, the Vulgate, hence they are called Vetus Latina, or Old Latin.x These translations, unlike their eventual replacement, the Vulgate, were not meant to be widely circulated, but were intended for local communities. Because their was no set translation, the Old Latin translations differ in style. They all however, are translations of the Septuagint.
The Latin Vulgate
Medieval Spanish Latin Vulgate manuscript
Around the year 382 C. E. Pope Damasus asked, The Early Church Father, Jerome to create a new translation of the Bible to replace the Old Latin versions. The translation that he crafted was quite ahead of its time, relatively speakingxi. He compared the texts of the Hebrew Bible with that of the Septuagint. When the books existed in the Hebrew cannon, he translated from it and if the book was not apart of the Hebrew cannon, he translated it from the Septuagint. He wrote prefaces to many of the books and sections of his translation, but these were not meant for a general audience, but for individuals who he had sent copies to. Jerome made a distinction between the books from the Hebrew Bible and those found only in the Septuagint, preferring that of the Hebrew over the Greek. This distinction would have far reaching consequences in the development of the Christian version of the Hebrew Bible by the Protestant reformers.
The Peshitta
Peshitta Fragment
The Peshitta is the most important, complete Aramaic translation of the Hebrew Bible. The word Peshitta means simple, common, or straight. It is often times referred to as the Syriac Vulgate. The reason why it was compiled is similar to the Latin Vulgate, it was meant to be a revision of the older Syriac translationsxii. Among these translations the Peshitta is perhaps unique as it is generally believed that for the translation of the Hebrew Bible of the Peshitta, the books were translated from the Hebrew cannon and not the Septuagintxiii xiv. In addition to the books of the Hebrew cannon, the books of the Septuagint was added as well, though there is no consensus about what language these books were translated from, some scholars believe they are from the Greek, while others believe Hebrew. The way these books are included in manuscripts is erratic, some do not include the books unique to the Greek cannon, while others do, yet others only include some, and others included books that are today considered Psuedepigrahical. This is perhaps reflective of the diverse groups that used itxv. Similar to the other translations mentioned above, except the Latin Vulgate, the author is unknown. It is believed to have originated as a Jewish translationxvi, though the individual or group whom compiled it is as much a mystery to us as it was to the ancient church as Theodore of Mopsuestia said,
“These Scriptures were translated into the tongue of the Syriacs by someone indeed at some time, but who on earth this was has not been made known down to our day”xvii
Versions Of The Old Testament Used By Different Christian Sects
It is well beyond the scope of this post to present every version used by the various Christian sects and denominations. What follows are major Christian sects, what ancient translation they traditionally used to base their Old Testaments onxviii, a list of the books they accept in their cannon to demonstrate the order of the books, and notes or points of interest about their Old Testament Canon.
The Old Testament Of The Syrian Churches
The version of the Old Testament used by the different types of Syrian Christians such as the Syrian Orthodox Churchxix and The Nestorian Church, also known as The Church of The East, is The Peshitta. What one finds distinguishing at first glance to the following canonical list is the order of the texts. Job immediately follows the five books of Moses. What is astonishing about this fact is that though in most canons it is situated in either the middle or later portion of the Hebrew Bible, while the story of the book is believed to have happened, according to some traditions, around the time of the Patriarchsxx.
Genesis
Exodus
Leviticus
Numbers
Deuteronomy
Job
Joshua
Judges
1 and 2 Samuel
1 and 2 Kings
1 and 2 Chronicles
Psalms
Proverbs
Ecclesiastes
Ruth
The Song of Songs
Esther
Ezra
Nehemiah
Isaiah
Twelve Minor Prophets
Jeremiah and Lamentations
Ezekiel
Daniel
The Old Testament Of The Ethiopian Orthodox Churchxxi
The Ethiopian Orthodox Church’s Old Testament is either translated directly from the Septuagint or from a Coptic translation of the Septuagint. It is worth noting the books contained in this canon which distinguish it from any other Old Testament cannon. It includes the books of Jubilees, Enoch, and I-III Meqabyan, among others which are consider Psuedipigraphical by the rest of Christendom. Because of its acceptance of such books, which were popular among early Christians, some scholars believe the Church represents a very early form of Christianity. What is interesting to note is that this canon, being a translation of the Septuagint lacks the books of Maccabees. Many people confuse the books of Meqabyan with the books of Maccabees but there is no connection. There has yet to be an English translation of The full Ethiopian Orthodox Old Testament, but currently there is a team of scholars seeking undertake such a translation.xxii
Genesis
Exodus
Leviticus
Numbers
Deuteronomy
Joshua
Judges
Ruth
I and II Samuel
I and II Kings
I Chronicles
II Chronicles (including the Prayer of Manasseh)
Jubilees
Enoch
Ezra-Nehemiah (In Catholic Bibles Ezra-Nehemiah are sometimes known as I and II Esdras)
Ezra (2nd) and Ezra Sutuel (Also known as I and II Esdras in the KJV, II Esdras is Chapters 3-14)
Tobit
Judith
Esther (Including the Greek additions to Esther)
I Meqabyan (Not the same as I Maccabees)
II and III Meqabyan (Not the same as II and III Maccabees)
Job
Psalms (Including Pslam 151)
Messalë (Proverbs ch 1–24)
Tägsas (“Reproof”; Proverbs ch 25–31)
Wisdom of Solomon (Also known just simply as Wisdom)
Ecclesiastes
Song of Songs (Also known as Song of Solomon)
Isaiah
Jeremiah (incl. Lamentations, Letter of Jeremiah, Baruch and Ethiopic 4 Baruch)
Ezekiel
Daniel (Including the Greek additions to Daniel)
Hosea
Amos
Micah
Joel
Obadiah
Jonah
Nahum
Habakkuk
Zephaniah
Haggai
Zechariah
Malachi
Wisdom Of Sirach (Also known as Book of the All-Virtuous Wisdom of Joshua ben Sira (Jesus Ben Sirach), The Book of Ecclesiasticus, Siracides, or just simply Sirach)
The Book of Josephas the Son of Ben Gorion (Pseudo Josephus)xxiii
The Old Testament of the Greek/Eastern Orthodox Churches
The Eastern Orthodox Churchesxxiv base their translation on the Septuagint. The one major difference between current Eastern Orthodox Old Testaments and the Septuagint is the placement of the book of IV Maccabees. In the Septuagint it is placed between III Maccabees and Psalms, however, although Eastern Orthodox Bibles include IV Maccabees, it is not considered canonical, and is included only as an appendix. Also the books of Daniel and Esther include additions which are not found in the Hebrew cannon. There are a few translations of the Eastern Orthodox Old Testament in English, one of the latest is The Eastern Orthodox Bible.
Genesis
Exodus
Leviticus
Numbers
Deuteronomy
Joshua
Judges
Ruth
I Kingdoms (Also known as 1 Samuel)
II Kingdoms (Also known as 2 Samuel)
III Kingdoms (Also Known as 1 Kings)
IV Kingdoms (Also Known as 2 Kings)
Chronicles I
Chronicles II
Ezra
I Esdras (Also known as Greek Ezra, 3 Esdras in the Vulgate and Bibles derived from it, 2 Esdras in the Slavonic Bible, Ezra Kali in The Ethiopic Bible)
Esther
Judith
Tobit
I Maccabees
II Maccabees
III Maccabees
Job
Psalms
Proverbs
Ecclesiastes
Song Of Songs (Also known as The Song of Solomon)
Wisdom Of Solomon (Also known just simply as Wisdom)
Wisdom Of Sirach (Also known as Book of the All-Virtuous Wisdom of Joshua ben Sira (Jesus Ben Sirach), The Book of Ecclesiasticus, Siracides, or just simply Sirach)
Isaias / Isaiah
Jeremiah
Lamentations
Baruch
Ezekiel
Daniel
Hosea
Joel
Amos
Obadiah
Jonah
Micah
Naum
Ambacum / Habakkuk
Sofonias / Zephaniah
Haggai
Zacarias / Zechariah
Malacias / Malachi
Odes: The Prayer Of Manasses
IV Maccabees (appendix)
The Old Testament Of The Roman Catholic Church
While the Old Testament of the Catholic church is based on that of Latin Vulgate, which in turn used the Septuagint as a source, it did not accept all of the books that are in the Septuagint as canonical, namely III Maccabees. The Latin Vulgate became the common Bible of the Church by the 1300’s CE. However, it was at the Council of Trent. 1545-1563 C.E, that it became the Official Bible and Canon of the Catholic faith. The most famous English translation to date of the church’s Bible, is the Douay Rheims translation.
Genesis
Exodus
Leviticus
Numbers
Deuteronomy
Joshua
Judges
Ruth
1 Kings (Also known as 1 Samuel)
2 Kings (Also known as 2 Samuel)
3 Kings (Also known as 1 Kings)
4 kings (Also known as 2 Kings)
1 Paralipomenon (Also known as 1 Chronicles)
2 Paralipomenon (Also known as 2 Chronicles)
1 Esdras (Also known as Ezra)
Nehemiah
Tobit
Judith
Esther
Job
Psalms
Proverbs
Ecclesiastes
Canticle of Canticles (Better known as the Song of Solomon or the Song of Songs
Wisdom (Also known as the Wisdom of Solomon)
Ecclesiasticus (Also known as Book of the All-Virtuous Wisdom of Joshua ben Sira (Jesus Ben Sirach), Wisdom of Sirach, The Book of Ecclesiasticus, Siracides, or simply as Sirach)
Isaiah
Jeremiah
Lamentations
Baruch
Ezekiel
Daniel
Hosea
Joel
Amos
Obadiah
Jonah
Micah
Nahum
Habakkuk
Zephaniah
Haggai
Zechariah
Malachi
I Maccabees
II Maccabees
The Old Testament Of The Protestant Churches
Generally most protestants reject the books found only in the Septuagint, but not in the Hebrew Canon, known to Protestants as the Apocrypha and Catholics as the deuterocanon, though this is not universally true. The Protestant Old Testament is based directly on the Hebrew Bible. The most popular, by far, English translation of the Protestant Old Testament is The King James Version.
Genesis
Exodus
Leviticus
Numbers
Deuteronomy
Joshua
Judges
Ruth
1 Samuel
2 Samuel
1 Kings
2 Kings
1 Chronicles
2 Chronicles
Ezra
Nehemiah
Esther
Job
Psalms
Proverbs
Ecclesiastes
Song of Songs (Also known as The Song of Solomon)
Isaiah
Jeremiah
Lamentations
Ezekiel
Daniel
Hosea
Joel
Amos
Obadiah
Jonah
Micah
Nahum
Habakkuk
Zephaniah
Haggai
Zechariah
Malachi
Cannon Comparison Table
The Major Differences Between The TaNaK and The Christian Old Testaments
1. Books
The Canons of Oriental Orthodox, Eastern Orthodox, Catholic, and a few Protestant Christians includes books that are not apart of the Jewish canon.
2. Book Order
The observant reader will notice, based on the above canonical list, that these Old Testaments’ orders (Except for those of the Syrian tradition) are in agreement with that of the TaNaK until after the book of Kings. In the Hebrew Canon the prophets form the middle part of the scriptures, but in all of the Old Testament canons they form the later portion. The book of Daniel, in the Jewish scriptures is apart of the Writings, but in the Christian scriptures is placed with the Prophets.
3. Book Divisions
Some of the books are divided up differently in the Christian canon than they are in the Jewish canon. In the Hebrew canon Samuel, Kings, Chronicles, The Twelve Prophets and Proverbs are one book each. While in the various Christian versions Samuel, kings, and Chronicles are split into two, where as the Twelve Prophets are split into twelve books. Most of Christendom accepts Proverbs exactly how it is found in the Jewish scriptures, except for The Ethiopian Orthodox Church which splits it in to two books, Messalë (Proverbs ch 1–24) and Tägsas (“Reproof”; Proverbs ch 25–31).
In modern editions of The Jewish and Christian scriptures, for most of the books, the verse numbering is the same. However there are some books such as Psalms and The minor prophets that use entirely different numbering systems, so if you are looking up a verse reference made from one canon in another, it may not exist or be a completely different verse! There is a system of converting references of the Psalms, from one canon to another, but no such one exists for the Minor Prophets.
Psalms Conversion Table
4. The Name Game: Expert Level
As noted in the lists of Old Testament Canons many some of the same books have many different names. No where is this more confusing than the relationship between the books of Ezra, Nehemiah, and the books of Esdras. For an explanation of what these books are in relation to the various traditions, please see the table below.
Important Old Testament Related Terms
Aramaic: a Semitic language closely related to Hebrew. It has been spoken in the Levant from the ninth century B.C. until the present in a variety of dialects. It originated among the Arameans of northern Syria.xxv The Peshitta is written in this language, as well as a few passages in the Hebrew Canon.
Eastern Orthodox Christianity: The Eastern Orthodox Church, officially called the Orthodox Catholic Church, and also referred to as the Orthodox Church and Orthodoxy, is the second largest Christian church in the world. It claims its origin directly to the apostles, a claim also made by the Oriental Orthodox Church and The Roman Catholic Church. It was the official Christian church of most of Eastern Europe. It includes such churches as, The Greek Orthodox Church, The Russian Orthodox Chuch, The Romanian Orthodox Church, etc. It is not connected with the Oriental Orthodox Churches. Its Old Testament is based on the Septuagint.
Hebrew: The original language of the Jewish Scriptures or Old Testament. It was the tongue spoken by the ancient Israelites. It is still used today as both a liturgical language and a spoken language, in a modern form.xxvi
Jerome: An Early Church father and saint in many Christian traditions. He was commissioned by Pope Damasus to create the Latin Vulgate.
Kione Greek: Common Greek, the dialect of Greek that spread because of the conquests of Alexander the Great. The Septuagint was written in this language.
Latin: Was the language spoken by the Romans and the primary language used among the
educated and romanized populace in the western part of the Roman Empire. It was until the 1900’s the liturgical language of the Catholic Church. It is the language of the Latin Vulgatexxvii.
Latin Vulgate: The ancient translation into Latin made by Jerome of the Hebrew Canon and the Septuagint. It was meant to replace the Old Latin translations. The Latin word Vulgate means common text.
Nestorian Church: Also known as the Church of the East. Nestorianism is the doctrine that there were two separate persons, one human and one divine, in the incarnate Christ. It is named after Nestorius, patriarch of Constantinople (428–31 C.E), and is/was believed by some ancient churches of the Middle East, Central Asia, and even as far east as China. It’s Old testament is based on the Peshitta.
Old Latin Translations: Pre-Latin Vulgate translations of the Old Testament into Latin. These texts were not meant for wide circulation. They differ widely in their translation style, though they are all translations of the Septuagint.
Old Testament: The first section of the Christian Bible. It contains the same books as the Jewish Scriptures, though they are not arranged in the same order. Oriental Orthodox, Eastern Orthodox, Catholic, and some Protestant Christians have additional books as well in their Old Testament. The Term Old Testament is considered offensive by Jews, the term Hebrew Bible is preferable.
Oriental Orthodox Christianity: Oriental Orthodoxy is the faith of those Orthodox Eastern Christian churches which recognize only the first three ecumenical councils; the First Council of Nicaea, the First Council of Constantinople and the First Council of Ephesus. They rejected the dogmatic definitions of the Council of Chalcedon. Hence, these Oriental Orthodox churches are also called Old Oriental churches, Miaphysite churches, or the Non-Chalcedonian churches, known to Western Christianity and much of Eastern Orthodoxy as Monophysite churches (although the Oriental Orthodox themselves reject this description as inaccurate, having rejected the teachings of both Nestorius and Eutyches). These churches are in full communion with each other but not with the Eastern Orthodox churches. Slow dialogue towards restoring communion began in the mid-20th century. Despite the potentially confusing nomenclature (the word “Oriental” being synonymous with “Eastern”), Oriental Orthodox churches are distinct from those that are collectively referred to as the Eastern Orthodox Church. The Oriental Orthodox communion comprises six churches: Coptic, Ethiopian, Eritrean, Syriac, Malankara Syrian (Indian Orthodox Church) and Armenian Apostolic churches. These churches, while being in communion with one another, are hierarchically independent. These churches use different versions of the Old Testament, some use the Septuagint, while others use the Peshitta.
Peshitta: The Most important, complete Aramaic translation of the Hebrew Bible. It is the basis for every Old Testament used by the various Syrian Christian Traditions.
Protestant Christianity: Protestantism is a religious movement that encompasses forms of Christian faith and practice that originated with doctrines and religious, political, and ecclesiological impulses of the Protestant Reformers, against what they considered the errors of the Roman Catholic Church. Its Old Testament is based on the Hebrew canon.
Roman Catholic Christianity: The largest Christian sect, it claims to be the oldest and original church (A claim that is also made by the Orthodox Christians). It was the official church of all of Western Europe until the Protestant Reformation. Its Old Testament is based on the Latin Vulgate.
Septuagint: The Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible that began in the third century B.C. in Alexandria, Egypt. The name Septuagint comes from the Greek word for “seventy” (hence the symbol LXX, 70 in Roman numerals) and refers to the seventy-two Jewish translators brought to Egypt by Ptolemy II Philadelphus (285-246 B.C.) to translate the Pentateuch, according to the legendary account in the Letter of Aristeasxxviii.
Resources
Catholic Bible
Douay Rheims PDF
Click to access douayrheimsbible.pdf
Ecumenical Bible
The New Revised Standard Version is a translation that makes use of all of the ancient versions and includes all of the books of the Septuagint. Online Searchable version:
PDF Version:
Click to access Bible_NRSV.pdf
Ethiopian Orthodox Bible
These people are attempting to compile the first English Translation of the full Bible of The Ethiopian Orthodox Church. Includes great information about the Church’s traditions, Bible, and many great resources.
http://ethiopianorthodoxbible.wordpress.com
Greek/Eastern Orthodox Bible
http://www.orthodox-church.info/eob/
Jewish Translation Of The Hebrew Bible
Jewish Publication Society TaNaK
Click to access Tanakh1917.pdf
Latin Vulgate
1861 Edition
http://www.sacredbible.org/vulgate1861
Latin Vulgate with Parallel English Douay-Rheims and King James Version
Timeline of Jerome’s translations
http://www.fourthcentury.com/index.php/jerome-translations-ofscripture
Old Latin Translation
Peshitta
Trilinear Translation
A newer translation
Protestant Bible
King James Version PDF
https://archive.org/details/KingJamesBibleKJVBiblePDF
Septuagint
The Septuagint Online
The Septuagint Institute
God willing, next Friday’s post will be on the Books of the Deuterocanon or Apocrypha.
iAramaic Targums were the first, though they were more paraphrases than word for word translations. I will discuss Targums more in depth in their own post when I get to Rabbinic literature.
iiThe first document to refer to the Greek Torah translation as the Septuagint was the Letter of Aristeas §§3–5, 19, 30, etc., a text of the Pseudepigrapha which was written to explain the writing of the Septuagint. The letter claims to be a contemporaneous record by an Alexandrian named Aristeas, an official at the court of Ptolemy Philadelphus. Aristeas states to have first hand knowledge of the details of its creation. The Church Father Jerome refers to this translation of the Torah as the Septuagint as well in his Hebraica Questiones in Libro Geneseos I/1.
iii The Letter of Aristeas §316
iv These texts are called apocryphal by Protestant Christians and deuterocanonical by Catholics. Orthodox Christians make no distinction between them. I will discuss them further in next Friday’s post.
vRogerson, J.W and Judith Lieu. Oxford Handbook of Biblical studies. New York: Oxford University Press, 2006., pp. 778
vi 285–246 B.C.E
vii,Metzger, Bruce M.. The Bible in Translation Ancient and English Versions. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2001. pp 7
viiiI will discuss the Dead Sea Scrolls in much greater depth in a coming post, however it should suffice to note here that the Oldest copy of the Hebrew Bible or Old Testament, was discovered at Qumran among the Dead Sea Scrolls.
ix Barrera, Julio Trebolle. The Jewish Bible and The Christian Bible. Grand Rapids, MI: Brill Academic Publishers, 1998., pp 301
x Plater, W.E and H.J White. A Grammer Of The Vulgate. : Oxford at the Clarendon Press, 1926.
xiOrigen’s Hexapla was even more impressive, including the Hebrew, a critical edition of the Septuagint, as well as several other Greek translations of the Hebrew Bible in columns, arranged side by side. Unfortunately no complete version has survived.
xiiSyriac Versions of the Bible by Thomas Nicol (http://www.bible-researcher.com/syriac-isbe.html)
xiiiThis is what is believed by most scholars, however not all accept this.
xivSebastian P. Brock The Bible in the Syriac Tradition 2006– Page 17
xvThe Peshitta was used by all of the Churches of the Syriac tradition, of which there were many. It seems that every time there was a Theological or Christological controversy in the early church it was at the expense of the Syrian Church. Because of this, it became wide spread in the East, even making its way to China with the Nestorians.
xviFrancis Crawford Burkitt, Early Eastern Christianity, pp 71
xviiEberhard Nestle in Hastings’ Dictionary of the Bible, IV, 645b.
xviii I used the term traditionally, because most modern translations, such as the New Revised Standard Version, compare these ancient version or consult them when making their translations.
xixA Church of the Oriental Orthodox tradition, a tradition distinct from the Greek or Eastern Orthodox Tradition.
xxAbraham, Isaac, and Jacob.
xxiA Church of the Oriental Orthodox tradition.
xxiiThis is their website, http://ethiopianorthodoxbible.wordpress.com
xxivThe Greek, Slavonic, Macedonian, Russian (any East European Orthodox Church)
xxvAchtemeier, Paul J.. The HarperCollins Bible Dictionary. New York, New York: HarperSanFrancisco, 1996. , pp 47
xxvi Ibid, 408
xxvii Ibid, 592
xxviii Ibid, 996
Perspectives Of A Fellow Traveler 