Tag Archives: Hebrew

My Journey Through The Entire Bible Part One: The Hebrew Bible

Brief Introductions To Religious Texts: The Deuterocanonical Literature

Brief Introductions To Religious Texts will serve to educate the general public on the great religious texts, what they are and basic scholarship related to them. The Philosophy of this series is to educate with the hope of clearing up misconceptions and fighting ignorance, which can lead to hate. Also to make this information available and easily Understandable by the general public. Interaction with the blog, asking questions, and sharing are greatly encouraged. Words appearing in bold are important terms defined at the end of the post. Also included at the end of the post are online resources for further study.

Any one whom has ever read a modern Protestant Bible, such as the King James Version or the New International version and has read a Bible such as the Douay Rheims or the New Revised Standard version has probably realized that in these Bibles are extra books not found in most Protestant Bibles. These books are vastly unknown to many, but not all Jews and Protestants. What exactly is this deuterocanonical literature? It is a set of books or parts of books there are not included in the Judaic canon of the Hebrew Scriptures, yet are found in the Septuagint and in some Christian versions of the Hebrew Bibleⁱ.

What’s In a Name?

There are some issues in the world of religion in which you can tell where a person or group stands by the names they use, and this is the case of the deuterocanonical literature. Both Catholic and Orthodoxⁱⁱ Christians accept this literature as canonical. To Orthodox Christians it is known as the anagignoskomena and to Catholics it is known as the deuterocanon, where as Protestants, who mostly reject them, call it the apocrypha. Anagignoskomena is a Greek word that literally means those which are to be read or ecclesiastical books. Deuterocanon is a combination of two Greek words deuteros (second) and kanon (rule or measuring stick). The term means these texts were recognized as canonical at a later date, to differentiate them from the “protocanonical” texts. The protocanonical books are the books of the TaNaK, all of which are universally accepted by Christiansⁱⁱⁱ. The word apocrypha is Greek as well, and means concealed or hidden. The way the word is used today it has the connotation of “set aside” or “withdrawn” from full canonical status as Scripture.^iv Occasionally these texts are called inter-testamental literature. This is because when the initiator of the Protestant Reformation, Martin Luther included these in his Bible, he placed them in a separate section between the Old and New Testaments.

The term apocrypha is problematic for many reasons and is the source of much confusion. The collection of non-canonical books outside of the New Testament are also known as apocrypha, this causes the two distinct groups of books to be mistaken for one another. The term apocrypha is also very subjective, it means different things to different groups. To a Catholic the term is applied to the Pseudepigrapha, a collection of Jewish texts different from those of the deuterocanonical literature, that have been preserved and utilized by different groups of Christians but, “with some exceptions (in Ethiopia, for example), not included in the

Bible.”^v The term is viewed by some Catholic and Orthodox Christians as offensive. The words deuterocanonical and apocrypha, while referring to the same books, are not synonyms.^vi Of the names for these books, deuterocanonical literature is the least problematic and is the preferred name by Scholars. The Style Manual for the Society of Biblical Literature suggests that the name deuterocanonical literature be used in place of apocrypha for academic writing^vii.

The Books Of The Deuterocanonical Literature

The texts of the deuterocanonical Literature belong to several different genres, occasionally the same book will contain multiple genres. “These include wisdom literature, which gives advice for right conduct and a successful life, linked to a religious outlook; apocalyptic writing, offering hope of momentous supernatural intervention at the end of history in order to save the people of God, sometimes through the agency of an anointed one or ‘Messiah’; historiography or writing that purports to be history; edifying stories which are essentially folk-tales with a religious message; rewritten Bible, where a familiar story from Scripture is retold with different emphases; prayers and psalms which may have had a liturgical or devotional function.”^viii

The Following Books are accepted by both Catholic and Orthodox Christians:

1 Esdras

2 Esdras

Tobit

Judith

The Rest of the Book of Esther

The Wisdom of Solomon

Ecclesiasticus (Also known as Book of the All-Virtuous Wisdom of Joshua ben Sira (Jesus Ben Sirach), The Book of Ecclesiasticus, Siracides, or just simply Sirach)

Baruch

The Letter of Jeremiah

The Additions to the Book of Daniel:

The Song of the Three Children (with the

Prayer of Azariah)

Susanna

Bel and the Dragon

The Prayer of Manasseh

I Maccabees

II Maccabees

The following books are accepted by Orthodox churches, either as fully canonical or as appendices:

III Maccabees

IV Maccabees^ix

Psalm 151

History Of The Deuterocanonical literature

The deuterocanonical literature originated during the time of the second temple period, with some created in the Jewish homeland, while others were created abroad. This literature did not originate with the Septuagint, but their history and development are intertwined. The Septuagint was initiated in the late third century BCE. As I noted in last week’s post, the Septuagint began as just a translation of the Torah, the first five books of Moses, but gradually grew to include the whole Hebrew Bible. However as Alexandrian Jews worked, they began to include books authored closer to their own period of time, and some books continued to be authored and added for sometime afterward. The books that would come to be known as the deuterocanon are mixed in with the protocanonical books in the Septuagint, and in this Alexandrian Jewish collection of books, there was no distinction made between the two. It is important to keep in mind that at this point in time the Jewish canon was not closed^x. The Torah was defined and the prophets were as well, but the writings were not. Some books which are not apart of the Writings today, where accepted by some Jews at this time, such as the Book Of Enoch, while others which are apart of the writings today, such as Esther were not accepted by some Jews^xi. It is important to note too that the Septuagint became the first Bible for Christians.

Codex Vaticanus, one of the oldest copies of the Septuagint and the Bible.

After 70 CE the Rabbis in Palestine, acknowledged a twenty-four book Palestinian canon,what is known today as the Jewish Scriptures or Hebrew Bible. This is due to their belief that revelation began with Moses and ended with Ezra. The deuterocanonical literature came later than Ezra, and some were written in Greek. This denied them acceptance as Scripture. The Rabbis did debate books after 70 CE, but these were books that were accepted into the Judaic canon^xii, not the deuterocanonical books. The Talmud is full of warnings against these books. Rabbis of the Talmud “claim that the person who brings together more than twenty-four books creates confusion.”^xiii and “one who reads in the outside books will have no place in the world to come.”^xiv Though it is important to note that for sometime after this, Rabbis continued to study and quote from Ecclesiasticus.^xv

Jerome painted by Jusepe de Ribera

Early Christians tended to make no distinction between the books of the Septuagint and tended to quote from them all. As history progressed some of the eastern Christian thinkers gained knowledge of the contents of the Judaic canon of scripture. These thinkers wanted to limit their canon to the twenty-four books accepted by Jews. In the fourth century when Jerome was commissioned to compile the Latin Vulgate, he went to Bethlehem to learn Hebrew, so he could translate straight from the Hebrew text. While there he discovered that the number of books in the Hebrew canon was not the same as that of the Septuagint. While most of the books of the Septuagint^xvi were included in the Latin Vulgate, Jerome made a distinction between the books of the Jewish scriptures and those found only in the Septuagint.^xvii

I said in last weeks post that Jerome’s distinction between the protocanonical and deuterocanonical^xviii books would have far reaching consequences for the Old Testament of the Protestants. Western Christians were aware of the distinction made by Jerome and this distinction would be one of the leading problems Protestants had with this literature. This was by no means the only issue they had with it. During the heated Protestant reformation, the deuterocanonical literature became embroiled in the debate. Some saw it as a source for Catholic doctrines, such as being able to obtain salvation by works. Some passages such as Tobit 12:9 supported this,

“For almsgiving saves from death and purges away every sin. Those who give alms will enjoy a full life,”^xix

One common slogan among Luther and other Protestant reformers was Sola fide, a Latin phrase meaning, by Faith alone. This refers to the Protestant belief that salvation comes from faith alone and not works. Because of these doctrinal conflicts and the distinction made by Jerome Protestants did not accept these books as canonical^xx. Though initially they still retained this literature in there Bibles. Originally the texts were separated from the other books of the Old Testament and placed into a section of their own. Later generations of Protestants would expunge these books from their Bibles all together. In the 1800 and early 1900’s many Protestant Bible Societies outright refused to print any Bible with the deuterocanonical literature. This changed in the mid 1900’s, and now one can find these texts in many Bibles, not just in Catholic or Orthodox Bibles, but in Ecumenical Bibles, such as the Revised Standard Version and The New Revised Standard Version.

The Significance Of The Deuterocanonical Literature

These books of immense value, furnish us with an extraordinary amount of details about Judaic thought and practice in the centuries before the advent of both Christianity and Rabbinic Judaism^xxi. These books are being studied more and more at a scholarly level due to what they disclose about the religious ideas of their authors and the communities which originally accepted them^xxii. The deuterocanonical literature especially, are priceless testaments to the numerous varieties of the Jewish religion during the time of the Second Temple. This is about the segment of time which falls in between the composition of the TaNaK and the New Testament books^xxiii.

These books tell us about grave military, religious, and political persecutions and oppressions, despite this these texts also contain profoundly soul-stirring calls to encouragement and reassurance. These texts tell us of the trials that not only the people went through, but that of which their culture did as well, due to the encounter with Hellenistic culture, both in Palestine and the diaspora. They tell narratives of heroes of the Jewish faith, both fierce combatants and peaceful people who died for their faith. It is these narratives which offer us an unfathomed awareness of a sacred tradition and a race fighting to endure the challenges of the different ancient nations that dominated them^xxiv. These texts provide ample testament to the continued role in Judaic culture, of the narrative. The books of the deuterocanon also indicate the continued advancement of the wisdom tradition and the increase in the functions of females in the sacred texts. In this literature women are depicted as the innocent vindicated, as with Susanna and Sarah in the book of Tobit, as the heroic mother, who died for her faith in 4 Maccabees, as Wisdom embodied as a female in the Wisdom of Solomon 6-12 and Ecclesiasticus 24, or as with Judith, a freedom giving agent of the Jewish people, sent by God.^xxv Finally this content illuminates the texts of the New Testament as their authors make many allusions to the deuterocanonical literature.

A Manuscript of IV Maccabees.

Religious Views Of The Deuterocanonical Literature Today

Below are short summaries of views of religious groups and points which were not discussed above.

1. Jewish

Most modern Jews do not accept the deuterocanonical literature. However some reports claim that Beta Israel, the Jews of Ethiopia do, accepting books that are not found any where else. It is worth noting that while the majority of Jews do not accept these books, two of these books, I Maccabees and II Maccabees relate the story of Hanukkah, the only Jewish religious holiday not to be mentioned in the Hebrew Bible.^xxvi

2. Oriental Orthodox

All Oriental Orthodox Christians accept this literature, though to varying degrees. The Coptic Orthodox Church accepts the same books that are accepted by Catholics^xxvii, Where as the Syriac Orthodox Church and the Armenian Apostolic Church^xxviii accepts III Maccabees. The Ethiopian Orthodox Church accepts most of this literature, but rejects the books of Maccabees, while adding unique books not included by any other Church.^xxix

3. Eastern Orthodox

Although this literature is included in the canon of the Church, its authoritative status compared to that of the undisputed books, is still an unanswered question. Orthodox Christians, imitating Athanasius, refer to the protocanonical literature as “canonical” and to the deuterocanonical literature as anagignoskomena^xxx.

4. Protestant

Some Protestants, such as the The Anglican Church^xxxi accepts them for instruction of the Church, but not to base doctrine on. In Bibles, which are Anglican, you will find these books in a separate section either between the Old and New Testaments or after the New Testament.

Important Terms Related To The Deuterocanonical Literature

Anagignoskomena: The term for the deuterocanonical literature used by Eastern Orthodox Christians. It is a Greek word that means those which are to be read or ecclesiastical books.

Apocrypha: The term for the deuterocanonical literature historically used by Protestants. It is a Greek word that means concealed or hidden.

Athanasius: Athanasius of Alexandria, also called Athanasius the Great, Athanasius the Confessor or, primarily in the Coptic Orthodox Church, Athanasius the Apostolic, was the twentieth bishop of Alexandria.

Beta Israel: A people of uncertain origin, living since ancient times in what is now central Ethiopia and practicing a form of Judaism. During the period 1984-1991 most Ethiopian Jews were resettled in Israel.^xxxii

Deuterocanonical literature: A set of books or parts of books there are not included in the Judaic canon of the Hebrew Scriptures, yet are found in the Septuagint and in some Christian versions of the Hebrew Bible. This is the preferred, scholarly name for this literature.

Diaspora: The settling of scattered colonies of Jews outside Palestine after the Babylonian exile.^xxxiii

Hanukkah: A Jewish festival, lasting eight days from the 25th day of Kislev (in December) and commemorating the rededication of the Temple in 165 BCE by the Maccabees after its desecration by the Syrians. It is marked by the successive kindling of eight lights.

Martin Luther: The first Protestant Reformer and the founder of the Lutheran Church.

Protestant reformation: Also known as the Protestant Revolution or simply the Reformation, was the schism within Western Christianity initiated by Martin Luther, John Calvin, and other early Protestants.

Protocanonical: The books of the TaNaK, all of which are universally accepted by Christians.

Society of Biblical Literature: The Society of Biblical Literature, founded in 1880 as the “Society of Biblical Literature and Exegesis,” is a constituent society of the American Council of Learned Societies, with the stated mission to “Foster Biblical Scholarship”

Sola fide: A Latin phrase meaning, by Faith alone. This refers to the Protestant belief that salvation comes from faith alone and not works.

Online Resources

Websites

Septuagint

The Septuagint Online

http://www.kalvesmaki.com/LXX

Bibles With The Deuterocanonical Literature

King James Version

http://www.kingjamesbibleonline.org/Apocrypha-Books/

New Revised Stand Version

http://bible.oremus.org/

Douay-Rhiems

http://www.biblestudytools.com/rhe/

The Deuterocanonical Literature

A Great Website for these texts and others from the same time period, as well as scholarship on these works.

http://www.earlyjewishwritings.com/

PDFs

The Septuagint

A New English Translation of the Septuagint Translated By Pietersma & Wright

https://mega.co.nz/#!C89VBaLa!Gv3aCd2xbrF70Di1H2YRBwNBSbpcA7zjYbvoOw5noH8

Bibles That Contain The Deuterocanonical Literature

King James with The Apocrypha

http://www.davince.com/download/kjvbiblea.pdf

The New Revised Standard Version

http://www.allsaintstupelo.com/Bible_NRSV.pdf

The Eastern or Greek Orthodox Bible Or The Holy Bible Of The Orthodox Church Old Testament

https://mega.co.nz/#!ilNngDra!hSH8YTzWwO8PGSnKK1hpVeLYeZ0Si0XL7BWxQJWNUP0

Douay-Rheims Bible of 1914

Catholic Bible

http://www.catholicspiritualdirection.org/douayrheimsbible.pdf

The Beloved and I

The same books accepted by Catholics

The Beloved and I Volume 4 Ezra to Job To Translated By Thomas McElwain

https://mega.co.nz/#!ugsRFA4Z!tnWbLIxFl5WknoIbY3mb_bXEa0MKX1mI3Cnxw6ALut0

The Beloved and I Volume 5 Psalms To Sirach Translated By Thomas McElwain

https://mega.co.nz/#!j9FizbpA!LNG60aEUyirwT063rvYX14g2fThadWgJQyOhTu2yDBQ

The Beloved and I Volume 6 Isaiah to Malachi Translated By Thomas McElwain

https://mega.co.nz/#!Ts1gxKoL!Dgnf8uBoePjpu16Jrmlkmqu6ZOW5DeYnv4jcjhyhi0w

Scholarly Collections Of Deuterocanonical Literature

The Apocrypha And Psuedepigrapha Volume One Apocrypha Edited By R. H. Charles

https://ia700303.us.archive.org/14/items/apocryphapseudep01charuoft/apocryphapseudep01charuoft.pdf

The Apocrypha And Psuedepigrapha Volume Two Psuedipigrapha By R. H. Charles

Contains IV Maccabees

https://mega.co.nz/#!z8EWjL7Z!xGdeZkYgL11xvYLLNpDBRPPqmSynB_bXMJKakHAFPt0

The Encyclopedia Of Lost and Rejected Scriptures By Lumpkin

Includes the deuterocanonical texts and other non-canonical books.

https://mega.co.nz/#!25lAHYIB!zTng9-KnW71h9W9mClCK0UaqU40YKif_Q3xe4bpL7l4

The Five Books Of Maccabees Translated By Henry Cotton

Includes a Fifth book, that is not apart of the deuterocanonical literature

https://mega.co.nz/#!Ttt1xCZT!Lr7RDrqfKR-zAYQxGU5-IPhp1KxWHEe6S8ZY4ui5WgI

Scholarly Works On The Deuterocanonical Literature

The Lost Books Of The Bible For Dummies

https://mega.co.nz/#!Kg0ihRwb!t8RDl4nEBNuTm1XOV-tcgcP5Tc5GP48hg_6O0wuuYmM

Oxford Handbook of Biblical studies

Its focus is on broad Biblical scholarship, but there is a section dedicated to this literature.

https://mega.co.nz/#!epl3kSKb!P01NzH72xt17XNSUQ7EXqjC6NTMI2RFA-06Ip0P1zsY

Scholarly Works On The Septuagint

The Septuagint By Dines

https://mega.co.nz/#!C49FXTYa!a8AcpNZlhHlqLsmizoK_K81NmZfFvsfmkAtRD0uNpcE

The Septuagint In Context

https://mega.co.nz/#!a98HVZbK!HE_FOB6RHGJAGZDqw3sywgylk-xX1wPb3QH1qAD-8LY

Translation and Survival

https://mega.co.nz/#!XkkknDCI!rSi0TrbxdfJLMHwX0JDXkyKI4wNbNbFME9Qd9TBa10k

God willing, next week’s post will be on The Pseudepigrapha

iAchtemeier, Paul J. The HarperCollins Bible Dictionary. New York, New York: HarperSanFrancisco, 1996. , pp 47 39-40

iiBoth Eastern Orthodox and Oriental Orthodox accept these books, though not all of these books are accepted by all Oriental Orthodox Churches. The Ethiopian Orthodox Church omits the Books of Maccabees, for example.

iiiHaper Collins Bible dictionary, pp 40

ivHaper collins Bible Dictionary, pp 39-40

vHaper collins Bible Dictionary, pp 40

viLumpkin, Joseph B. The Encyclopedia of Lost and Rejected Scriptures: The Pseudepigrapha and Apocrypha. Blountsville, AL: Fifth Estate, 2010. Print.

vii Alexander, Patrick H. The SBL Handbook of Style: For Ancient Near Eastern, Biblical, and Early Christian Studies. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1999. Print, pp 17

viii Rogerson, J. W., and Judith Lieu. The Oxford Handbook of Biblical Studies. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2008. Print., pp 491

ixThe Greek and Slavonic Orthodox Churches accept it as an appendix, but the Georgian Orthodox Church accepts it as canonical.

xSmith-Christopher, Daniel L., and Stephen J. Spignesi. Lost Books of the Bible for Dummies. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley Pub., 2008. Print, pp 64

xiThe Essenes, whom are believed by most scholars to be the authors of the Dead Sea Scrolls, seem to have accepted the book of Enoch, either as canonical or at least useful to be read. They did not have a copy of Esther, though scholars are unsure why, as every other book of the TaNaK was found.

xiiSuch as Esther.

xiiiMidr. Qoh. 12:12

xivb. Sanh. 100b

xvHaper collins Bible Dictionary, pp 40

xviIII and IV Maccabees and Psalm 151 were not included

xviiHaper collins Bible Dictionary, pp 41

xviiiThese terms did not exist in Jerome’s time.

xixNRSV

xxLuther also felt similarly about the New Testament Epistle of James, but finally decided to accept it as canonical.

xxi Lost Books Of The Bible For Dummies, pp 80

xxii The same is also true of the Pseudepigrapha, the Dead Sea Scrolls, and the writings of Josephus and Philo, all of which I will address in coming posts.

xxiii Oxford hand book of biblical studies, pp 491

xxivLost Books Of The Bible For Dummies, pp 80

xxv Harper Collins Bible dictionary, pp 42

xxvi Though it is the most well attested Jewish religious holiday in ancient documents, as not only is it mentioned in I and II Maccabees it is also mentioned in the Talmud and in the writings of Josephus.

xxvii III Maccabees is found in some manuscripts but is not considered canonical.

xxviiiIV Maccabees was also accept earlier in the tradition, but is no longer considered canonical.

xxix Such as The Book of Enoch or Jubilees, these will be discussed in more depth in mext weeks post.

xxx The Eastern/Greek Orthodox Bible, 9

xxxi Also known as the Church of England and as the Episcopalian Church in the U.S.

xxxii “Ethiopian Jew.” The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition. 2003. Houghton Mifflin Company 17 Sep. 2014 http://www.thefreedictionary.com/Beta+Israel

xxxiii“Diaspora.” Merriam-Webster.com. Merriam-Webster, n.d. Web. 17 Sept. 2014. <http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/diaspora>

Brief Introductions To Religious Texts: The Hebrew Bible

1 Reply

The Hebrew Bible is probably one of the most mysterious books to those whom are not Jewish, not religious scholars, have never taken a religion course in college or is not knowledgeable in biblical studies. Many believe it is entirely different than the Christian Bible. What exactly is The Hebrew Bible? The Hebrew Bible is the collection of texts considered canonical by Judaism. Almost 2/3 of the worlds population is influenced by the contents of this book in in some form. Christians accept the Hebrew Bible as scripture, though not in the same formⁱ and sometimes with additional books and passagesⁱⁱ. The Hebrew Bible shares many of its stories with the Quranⁱⁱⁱ, the holy book of Islam. In the past, some Gnostics even drew upon the stories of the Hebrew Bible to compile their texts.^iv

The Name Game

Much of the confusion and mystery surrounding the Hebrew bible comes from the fact that it goes by various names. The term Hebrew Bible, is largely a neutral name. You will find it used in secular, academic religious courses, such as those taught at a Public University in America, in scholarly writings, and interfaith dialogue, though some Christians are starting to use this term as well. Some synonyms include the Hebrew Scriptures or the Jewish Bible. These names, with the exception of the Jewish Bible, are not generally used by the Jewish and Christian faith communities. Jews tend to refer to it as the TaNaK, also transliterated as TaNaCH, The Jewish Bible, or sometimes, though rarely, as the Torah. The name TaNaK is an acronym of the first letter of the names of the three divisions of the Hebrew Bible in the Jewish Tradition, Torah, Nevi’im, and Ketuvim. These three divisions will be explained in detail below. Christians refer to the Hebrew Bible commonly as the Old Testament or less commonly as The Old Covenant, The Law, The Old Law, The Mosaic Law. These names are considered offensive and disrespectful to Jews and Judaism. This names are also misleading, the Hebrew Bible deals with more than just law and covenants, though these are major themes.^v

From this point on the remainder of this post will be mainly from the traditional Jewish point of view and that of the secular scholar, with an occasional reference to Christianity and Islam. I will treat the Christian “Old Testament” separately in its own post.

Torah

As I noted above the term Torah is used, rarely, to refer to the whole TaNaK, however the term commonly refers to the first five books of the Bible:

Bereishith (Genesis)

Shemoth (Exodus)

Vayiqra (Leviticus)

Bamidbar (Numbers)

Devarim (Deuteronomy)

The English names of these books are derived from their Greek names. The Hebrew names of these texts are taken from the first few words of these books: Bereishith (In the beginning…), Shemoth (The names…), Vayiqra (And He called…), Bamidbar (In the wilderness…), and Devarim (The words…). Sometimes you will find these names spelled slightly different, due to different transliterations being possible. The term Torah is translated in various ways such as law^vi, instruction, or teaching. The term Torah is usually translated into English as Pentateuch, a Greek word made of the words, pente (five) and teuchos (scrolls, books, or volumes).

Traditionally practitioners of the Jewish, Christian, and Islamic^vii faiths believe that Moses received the Torah on Mount Sinai. It is sometimes called the Written Torah to distinguish it from the Oral Torah, the Talmud, which most traditional Jews^viii believe Moses received at the same time he received the written Torah. The Torah is the most important part of the Hebrew Bible for Jews. It contains the 613 laws^ix, 248 positive commandments, things one should do, and 365 negative commandments, things not to do, which they try to live their lives around.^x Not only are the commandments found in the first five books of the Hebrew Bible, but so are the stories of the beginning of the human race, the origin of the children of Israel, and the founding of their nation. The Torah is divided into weekly portions known as Parsha, which are studied and read aloud in synagouges.

A Torah scroll is traditionally read every Sabbath in Synagogues.

Nevi’im

The name of the second division of the TaNaK is a much more simple word to translate. The term Nevi’im means prophets. Nevi’ means prophet and in the Hebrew language when im is added it makes the word plural. The second section of the Hebrew Bible is further divided into two sections, Nevi’im Rishonim, former prophets, and Nevi’im Aharonim, the later prophets. The books that make up the Former Prophets section are:

Yehoshua (Joshua)

Shoftim (Judges)

Shmuel (I &II Samuel)

Melakhim (I & II Kings)

In the TaNak, I & II Samuel are one book, as is I & II Kings. The books that make up the later prophets are:

Yeshayah (Isaiah)

Yirmyah (Jeremiah)

Yechezqel (Ezekiel).

The following books are apart of the Latter prophets, but they are just one book in the Hebrew Bible: Hoshea (Hosea)

Yoel (Joel)

Amos

Ovadyah (Obadiah)

Yonah (Jonah)

Mikhah (Micah)

Nachum (Nahum)

Chavaqquq (Habbakkuk)

Tzefanyah (Zephaniah)

Chaggai (Haggai)

Zekharyah (Zechariah)

Malakhi (Malachi)

The Nevi’im while not as important as the Torah, continues the narrative where the Torah left off. The history of the nation of Israel continues until the end of book of Kings. Though scholars believe the latter prophets were written first. The diversity of the content type is almost like that of the Torah, though there is no unique legal material. The first four books are sometimes referred to as the Deuteronomistic history, as a major theme found in them is the Israelites trying to live according the laws of Deuteronomy. Unlike the Torah there is no complete reading cycle of the Prophets, though there selections from the prophets that are read with the weekly parsha, called haftarah. Unlike the parsha, the haftarah is not universally the same among the different Jewish traditions nor are they universally the same within any one of the various Jewish traditions.

Ketuvim

The third and final portion of the Hebrew Bible is the Ketuvim, a Hebrew word that is often translated as Writings, but sometimes it is translated as Hagiographa. The books of the Writings are:

Tehillim (Psalms)

Mishlei (Book of Proverbs)

Iyov (Book of Job)

Shir Ha-shirim (Song of Songs) or (Song of Solomon)

Ruth

Eikhah (Lamentations)

Qoheleth (Ecclesiastes)

Esther

Daniel (Book of Daniel)

Ezra and Nechemyah (Book of Ezra-Book of Nehemiah)

Divrei Ha-Yamim (Chronicles)

The Writings are a step below The Prophets in authority. The Ketuvim was not only the last section of the TaNaK to be added, but of the three sections, it went through the longest period of canonization. Some of these texts may have been added as early as immediately following the canonization of the Prophets, about 132 BCE^xi, with the canon finally closing around 95 CE, according to Josephus. In Against Apion, he referred to the Hebrew Bible as being finalized by saying, “… no one has ventured either to add, or to remove, or to alter a syllable…”.^xii The genres of writing in this section are very diverse, with poetry, narrative, history, wisdom literature, and prophecy. Unlike both the Torah and the Nevi’im there is no reading cycle throughout the year, the Psalms are used daily in prayers and most, but not all, of the books are read on holidays, like The Book Of Esther is on Purim, for example.

Normally Synagogues are places of sober worship, but on Purim, when the Book Of Esther is Read, it becomes quite festive.

A Brief Selection From The Hebrew Bible: The Song of Moses^xiii

Then Moses and the Israelites sang this song to the Lord:

‘I will sing to the Lord, for he has triumphed gloriously;

horse and rider he has thrown into the sea.

2 The Lord is my strength and my might,

and he has become my salvation;

this is my God, and I will praise him,

my father’s God, and I will exalt him.

3 The Lord is a warrior;

the Lord is his name.

4 ‘Pharaoh’s chariots and his army he cast into the sea;

his picked officers were sunk in the Red Sea.

5 The floods covered them;

they went down into the depths like a stone.

6 Your right hand, O Lord, glorious in power—

your right hand, O Lord, shattered the enemy.

7 In the greatness of your majesty you overthrew your adversaries;

you sent out your fury, it consumed them like stubble.

8 At the blast of your nostrils the waters piled up,

the floods stood up in a heap;

the deeps congealed in the heart of the sea.

9 The enemy said, “I will pursue, I will overtake,

I will divide the spoil, my desire shall have its fill of them.

I will draw my sword, my hand shall destroy them.”

10 You blew with your wind, the sea covered them;

they sank like lead in the mighty waters.

11 ‘Who is like you, O Lord, among the gods?

Who is like you, majestic in holiness,

awesome in splendour, doing wonders?

12 You stretched out your right hand,

the earth swallowed them.

13 ‘In your steadfast love you led the people whom you redeemed;

you guided them by your strength to your holy abode.

14 The peoples heard, they trembled;

pangs seized the inhabitants of Philistia.

15 Then the chiefs of Edom were dismayed;

trembling seized the leaders of Moab;

all the inhabitants of Canaan melted away.

16 Terror and dread fell upon them;

by the might of your arm, they became still as a stone

until your people, O Lord, passed by,

until the people whom you acquired passed by.

17 You brought them in and planted them on the mountain of your own possession,

the place, O Lord, that you made your abode,

the sanctuary, O Lord, that your hands have established.

18 The Lord will reign for ever and ever.’

19 When the horses of Pharaoh with his chariots and his chariot drivers went into the sea, the Lord brought back the waters of the sea upon them; but the Israelites walked through the sea on dry ground.

Important Hebrew Bible Related Terms

Deuteronomic History: The story of Israel living according to the laws of Deuteronomy. It includes the books: Joshua, Judges, Samuel, and Kings.

Haftarah: A Hebrew term meaning conclusion. A selection from the Nevi’im section of the Hebrew Bible, read along with the weekly Torah portion.

Hebrew Bible: The collection of texts considered canonical by Judaism. Also called TaNaK, Jewish Bible, and The Old Testament.

Ketuvim: A Hebrew term meaning Writings or Hagiographa. It is the third and last canonized portion of the Hebrew Bible. It is the least authoritative section of the Jewish scriptures.

Nevi’im: A Hebrew term meaning prophets. The second division of the Hebrew Bible. Is less authoritative than the Torah, but more authoritative than the Ketuvim.

Parsha: A selection from the Torah which is read each Sabbath in synagogues. These are universally the same among all Jewish traditions.

Purim: A joyous Jewish holiday that commemorates the rescue of the Jews from their foes in the Book of Esther.

Synagogue: The building where a Jewish assembly or congregation meets for religious worship and instruction.

Torah: A Hebrew term meaning Teaching or Instruction, the first five books of the Bible, Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy, also referred to as the Five books of Mosses and the Pentateuch.

God willing, Next Friday’s post will be on the Christian version of the Hebrew Bible, called the Old Testament, and the ancient translations of the Hebrew Bible upon which they are based.

Notes

iSome books in are divided in two, the sequence is different, and some books have different verse numbering. This will be discussed in more detail in my post about the Christian Version of the Hebrew Bible.

iiCatholic and Orthodox Christians have additional books such as Tobit and the Books of Maccabees. They also have additions to some books like Daniel and Esther. This will be discussed in more detail in my post about the Christian Version of the Hebrew Bible.

iiiSometimes transliterated as Koran or Qu’ran.

ivSuch as the Apocryphon Of John which retells the story of Adam and Eve in the Garden.

vThe book of Job, for example contains nothing about laws or covenants. In fact it is not even about an Israelite!

viMany people disagree with translating the word Torah as law, as do I. The Torah does contain laws, but it is not just legal material, there is much history, narrative, and poetical material as well. I have included it here because one will occasionally find it translated as law.

viiThere is much debate however upon what the word Torah in the Quran refers to. Some believe it refers to the whole Hebrew bible, others believe it is the first five books of the Bible, still others believe it was another document that has since been lost, changed, or mixed with other sources

viiiAn exception to this are the Karaites, Jews who rejected the Talmud and lived their existence solely by the Hebrew Bible. Armstrong, Karen. Jerusalem: One City, Three Faiths. New York: Ballantine, 1997. pp. 231

ixTalmud, Tractate Makkot 23B

xMany of which involved the temple.

xiHenshaw, T. The Writings: The third division of the Old Testament canon. George Allen & Unwin Ltd., 1963, pp. 16–17

xiiAgainst Apion Book 1, 8

xiiiExodus 15:1-19, NRSV

An Interview With Dr. Thomas McElwain

4 Replies

Recently I had the pleasure to interview the renowned international religious scholar and author, Dr. Thomas McElwain. He discusses his background, his work, and so much more!

Perspectives Of A Fellow Traveler: Can you tell our readers about your Educational and religious background?

Dr. Thomas McElwain: I was educated in Seventh-day Adventist schools from the first grade to the end of college, except for the sixth grade. Monterey Bay Academy in California, Antillian College in Puerto Rico, and Séminaire Adventiste in Collonges, France. Then summer school in Andrews University. I then studied Ethnography in Uppsala University in Sweden through the doctoral level, but did not present a dissertation. Instead, I went to Stockholm and studied Comparative Religion under Åke Hultkrantz and finished a Ph.D. with a dissertation on Iroquois mythology. I completed the grade of docent in Stockholm in 1981. That’s it for education. My parents were Seventh-day Adventists, but I left that as soon as I got old enough to think for myself. My grandmothers were very influential. My mother’s mother had a Quaker background that influenced me highly, especially through the Hicksite tradition and finally back to Edward Elwall, who was a Sufi from a Turkish order. My father’s mother was a Baptist, but whose father was a Sufi as well. She was a vigorous admirer of Imam Khomeini. These two women were the most influential people in my religious world. That’s it in a nutshell. I’m sort of a Quaker hard-shell Baptist Sufi who has practiced Islam for several decades. Just like Edward Elwall, except I don’t wear a turban or 18th-century Turkish dress.

POAFT: What exactly is the Beloved and I?

Dr. McElwain: The Beloved and I is a rhymed verse translation (to the extent I’ve been able to translate from the Hebrew, Greek and Arabic) of the wider canon of the Bible, books of Enoch and Jubilees, apocryphal gospels and Qur’an, all armed with about 8000 commentaries in a verse form combining features of the sonnet and the ghazel. It is a contemplation of the “I” from a Sufi perspective, which may be claiming too much. It takes something approaching a fool or an idiot to need two and a third million words to fail to explain what the English word “I” means. I have written other books, both academic and apologetic, prose as well as verse.

The Beloved and I

POAFT: Not everybody makes a translation of The Bible nor of the Qur’an, to the best of my knowledge no one has ever done both. More so they have never, in their entirety, been included in the same anthology. In addition, you have included a few of the most important works of the Apocrypha and Psuedipigraphia of The Hebrew Bible (Old Testament) and of the New Testament Apocrypha, What was your inspiration?

Dr. McElwain: To my knowledge, no one has every set either one to rhymed verse either. So my inspiration was probably a lame attempt to get into the Guiness book of records. That must be it, because I surely did not have the temerity to imagine that anyone would ever read all of that. I must admit with humility, however, that a few people actually have. Actually, it was inspired by the practical need of producing a weekly reading for the dhikr in which I participate each week.

POAFT: Of The Texts not included in the Bible, why did you chose these to include as opposed to the countless others?

Dr. McElwain: chose all of the texts in function of one criterion: the text must state or imply adherence to the Decalogue [Ten commandments]. I see the Decalogue as a brief and comprehensive expression of Abrahamic faith. It is the only such text in all of the classical scriptures of the world that claims to have been spoken by God directly to a large, representative segment of humanity, without the medium of an angel, prophet, or vision. That gives it an objective distinction. So I have used it as a criterion or rule of thumb. Obviously, I have not been able to include all texts that might fit the criterion. But I think all that I have included do so. The first “commandment” I find to be fundamental, from which all else is derived: Thou shalt have no other gods but Me. I think that the principles of the Decalogue are foundational to all religious traditions, though all of them might not affirm everything in the Decalogue of Exodus 20. All religions prohibit murder, thievery, false testimony, etc.

POAFT: Is there any benefit to studying these texts together?

Dr. McElwain: Both believers and scholars have tended to focus on their differences. This is a skewing of reality. There has to be a fundamental consistency at some level, or they would never have been compiled together in the one book of the Bible, nor would the Qur’an have referred to the earlier Scriptures in confirmation of its own validity. It seems strange to me that this obvious fact is rather often ignored. Study of these texts in view of finding such fundamental consistency and focusing on it ought to contribute to both understanding other people and their faiths and fostering peaceful existence among them.

POAFT: Have you received any criticism for grouping these texts together?

Dr. McElwain: Yes. I’ve lost all my friends!

POAFT: Is there any text not currently in The Beloved and I that you would like to add to it?

Dr. McElwain: Yes. The Gospel of Barnabas. The battle of the books, which I earlier saw as serving at least some good purpose in keeping controversy focused on texts rather than killing each other, has not succeeded in keeping peace. Physical violence between so-called Muslims and so-called Christians has increased. Given the recent events in the world, I think the recognition that The Beloved and I gives to the common foundations of humanity is more acutely important than ever. The defense of one segment of the Abrahamic Scriptures, coupled with an attack on another segment of them, is misguided and contributes to an atmosphere of suspicion and eventually physical violence. It is unacceptable. My refusal to engage in anti-Bible or anti-Qur’an activity has aroused some opposition and hatred. I do not for a moment see myself as a victim or a failure. It is a simple fact that I lost my Christian or Baptist audience when I wrote Islam in the Bible. I lost my Muslim audience when I wrote The Beloved and I, even though it consistently supports Islamic views. My work does not support the general trend towards polarization and violence, and for that reason is not popular or even acceptable today. That may or may not change in future. I have done my duty and am satisfied.

POAFT: Why do you think people are attracted to polarization and violence?

Dr. McElwain: The surface reason is because of business interests determining government policy and the need to manipulate the population to accept that. The fundamental reason of course lies in a spiritual issue. The spiritual issue is the fact that God has given the divine gift of self-consciousness to each individual. That results in either experiencing oneself as god and feeling threatened by other people or in seeing the divine in every other individual. The former experience is the root of all violence.

A young Dr. McElwain

POAFT: From my experiences with languages I know that between two languages there are rarely word for word equivalents. Translating is no easy task, and translating is largely interpretation. Would you agree with this?

Dr. McElwain: Definitely. That is why I think Jews and Muslims are wise to maintain the original-language recitation of Scripture, and Christians unwise to relinquish it.

POAFT: Can you describe how much more difficult it is to translate something into poetry than prose?

Dr. McElwain: I think it depends on the person. The craft of versification can be acquired by anyone, but it must be acquired. I actually expected versification to be a greater challenge than it was. My translation of the Bible into verse is often actually more literal and word-for-word faithful to the original than most modern prose translations.

POAFT: How long did it take to complete The Beloved and I?

Dr.. Mc. Elwain: Nine and a half years.

POAFT: What are some of your favorite verses from the Beloved and I?

Dr. McElwain: Surah 1 Al-Fatihah or the Opening

1 In the name of God most gracious, merciful,

2 All praise is God’s, Lord of the Universe,

3 Most gracious Lord and Lord most merciful,

4 King of the Day of judgement, 5 we rehearse

To You alone our worship and petition.

6 Guide us, O Lord, in Your right admonition,

7 In ways of peace in Your bounties’ fruition,

Not in their path who know Your wrath

Nor in their way whose steps go to perdition.

Surah 112 Al-Ikhlas, or Purity (of Faith)

In the name of God Most Gracious, Merciful.

1 Proclaim alone He God is one.

2 God without need of anyone.

3 He is not born, He sires no son,

4 There is none like him, no, not one.

[Commentary To Surah 112]

Truly, my Beloved, there is none like You!

The One and Only, Allah Allah Huu!

Eternal, Absolute, in need of none,

Truly, my Beloved, You alone are One!

For You give birth to nothing I may know,

In You there is no change, no come and go,

You have no birth, You have no source at all,

Time, place, inside or out the earthly ball.

Creation is an idol if by it

I might attempt to give You space or fit.

No weight or colour, sequence, sour or sweet

Can touch Your essence, trace Your hands and feet.

Invisible to eye and mind above,

I cannot know You, I can only love.

POAFT: Other than The Beloved and I, what are some of your favorite English translations of the Bible, The Quran, and the Other texts? And what is it about these that you like?

Dr. McElwain: I like the elevated language of the King James Version of the Bible. For the same reason I like Pickthall’s translation of the Qur’an.

POAFT: You have also authored several more books have you not? what are they?

Dr. McElwain: Islam in the Bible, London Lectures, Secret Treasures of Salaat, Invitation to Islam are some apologetic works that come to mind. I recently did Psalms in Brief. Academic books are Mythological Tales and the Allegany Seneca; Our Kind of People; and Adventism and Ellen White. I have pretty much turned away from public dialogue in recent years, as any discourse at all seems to feed violence in the present atmosphere. I do dhikr and wait for change. May Allah have mercy on the world, since humankind does not.

POAFT: Unfortunately I have not read all of your work, but I have read your Islam in the Bible. I knew Judaism, Christianity, and Islam was linked and as a Muslim I believe that God sent prophets to teach his message long before the advent of the prophet Muhammad. I was also aware of the practices of ancient Israel. However, it did not dawn on me that there was overlap between their practices and the pillars of Islam, other than the belief in strict monotheism. Is it common for people not to see this? If So why do you think it is?

Dr. McElwain: Jews are generally aware of this, while Christians are not. I suspect it has something to do with the Christian habit of reading the Hebrew Scriptures allegorically and not taking the literal meaning seriously. They would be likely to skip over the literal similarities, then, as most of them are in the Hebrew Scriptures, or the Old Testament, as it is called.

Islam In The Bible

POAFT: What inspired you to write Islam In The Bible?

Dr. McElwain: I was asked to lecture about the Bible in various Islamic venues in several countries. I used the material from those lectures then to produce the book.

POAFT: Do you think it is possible to be a practicing Muslim and to read and study the Bible?

Dr. McElwain: It is possible to be a practicing Muslim and study and read all of the classical religious books of the world. Al-Biruni is certainly one of the major founders of the science of comparative religion, which is thus to be considered an Islamic science. The fact that comparative religion is no longer seen as an Islamic science merely shows that current Islam is deficient and no long represents the original flowering of the faith. This is precisely one of the central flaws of contemporary Islam.

But the Bible is the most important pre-Islamic source for Muslims. The Bible was read and studied by Islamic scholars in all of the medieval Islamic empires as well as in the Ottoman Empire, where a knowledge of the Bible was required of high level clerics. Probably one of the best translations of the Bible into any language is that of Ali Bey, who was a revert and functionary in the Ottoman Empire. His translation, with some adjustment, was used by Christians until recently. The Evangelical translation into Turkish that is now replacing it is noticeably inferior. One of the major changes is the replacement of the Ottoman Turkish word Allah with Tanri. This feeds the abusive and divisive trend in current discourse which maintains that Allah has nothing to do with the God of the Bible and is merely a pagan moon god. Using Bible translation to affirm such nonsense is immoral.

POAFT: Does studying the Bible benefit Muslims in any way?

Dr. McElwain: It provides them with a realization of the continuity of revealed faith. It also provides the foundation upon which the Qur’an stands. Much of the Qur’an is a commentary or an extension of the Bible. Without a knowledge of the Bible, much of the Qur’an is subject to misapprehension.

POAFT: Do you think Jews and Christians should read the Qur’an? If so do you believe it is beneficial for them in any way?

Dr. McElwain: It is certainly beneficial for them, if they read it with the intention of discovering what Islam teaches. If they read it with the intention of finding excuses to incite genocide against the Muslim population, then they had better not read it. Reading the Qur’an without malice can only be beneficial.

POAFT: Does studying the Apocryphal Books and Psuedepigraphia have any benefits for Jews, Christians, and Muslims?

Dr. McElwain: There are two major benefits. The Apocryphal and Pseudepigraphical writings illuminate history and the faith configurations of the times in which they were written. Secondly, they are often very spiritual in content and provide real devotional material. For example, the Gospel of Barnabas, is a case in point. It is generally read either to disprove it and show it to be a fraud, or to prove that Muhammad was predicted before hand or to prove that Jesus did not die on the cross. I have never seen anyone quoting it for any other purpose. And yet, it contains a great deal of material of the highest spiritual quality. I would say that hardly any other single writing has impressed me so much in a practical way as this book.

POAFT: I have started reading your translation of The Writings of Edward Elwall. He seems like a very interesting fellow. Can you describe who he was for our readers and tell us what inspired you to translate his work?

Dr. McElwain: Actually, it is not a translation, but simply a copy. I visited the Dr Williams’s Library in London where most of his writings are found. I copied them into a computer file and finally posted them on the internet, where people could access them. Edward Elwall has been rather much my mentor for a long time. He is listed as a Unitarian Quaker who lived at the beginning of the 1700s, but he was also a member, apparently of the Mill Yard Sabbatarian Baptist Society in London and the Presbyterian church in Wolverhampton. But he belonged to a Turkish dervish order and commonly wore a turban and Turkish dress.

POAFT: Is there any subject you would like to write about one day that you have not yet written?

Dr. McElwain: Rather many! I’d like to write an acrostic on the Vulgata, every letter forming the first letter of each line of rhymed verse! I wonder how long it would take… (laughs)!

POAFT: (laughs) All of your works are available online, one can purchase a printed edition or get a pdf copy for free right?

Dr. McElwain: That’s right, although I’ve had complaints about not being able to download. In that case, I just send people a pdf file.

POAFT: Thank you very much Dr. McElwain for taking the time to talk with me, it is always a pleasure to talk with you. I hope we can do it again soon.

Dr. McElwain: My pleasure!

Once again I would like to thank Dr. McElwain for his time. Be sure to check out Dr. McElwain’s work and get your copy of The Beloved and I at http://www.lulu.com/spotlight/thomasmcelwain